THE TERM OF UNCERTAINTY

THE IMPORTANCE OF INSURANCE

WHO ARE THE SELLERS OF INSURANCE

WHO ARE THE BUYERS OF INSURANCE

UNDERWRITERS AND BROKERS

THE HISTORY OF LLOYD'S

In the year 1688 a coffee house in Tower Street near the Tower of London, was owned by a man called Edward Lloyd. Being so near the River Thames, his customers included ships’ masters, provision merchants, and bankers with a maritime interest. In those days there was no organized market, and people wishing to insure went from house to house and shop to shop asking businessmen to cover their risks to whatever extent they could afford. On the chance of finding several such people at one call, those in search of insurance began to call at Lloyd’s to inquire if anyone was interested. Lloyd began to provide paper and pens for the convenience of customers and gradually the sale of insurance became more important than the sale of coffee.

After Lloyd’s death in 1713 the business continued, eventually becoming a private club whose members owned and controlled the premises and restricted entry to those in shipping and insurance. The Lloyd’s Act of 1871 finally established Lloyd’s as a Corporation, run by a committee elected by the members.

The underwriters, even in the modern premises, have ' boxes ' around the floor which are reminiscent of the traditional coffeehouse settle. These boxes give a certain amount of privacy to underwriters discussing risks with brokers.

LLOYD'S OF LONDON

Lloyd’s is a market, of international standing, where individuals known as underwriters accept insurance. These underwriters have been elected ‘Underwriting Members of Lloyd’s' by a special voting process which involves meeting strict financial and other standards set by the Corporation of Lloyd’s. This Corporation owns the premises and oversees the market. It also collects shipping and other information from all over the world. It does not itself transact insurance, which is entirely a matter for individual underwriters. The most succinct definition of Lloyd’s was once given by a famous caller named Farrant. A caller is the red-robed presidential figure who sits in the rostrum beneath the Lutine Bell and calls brokers who are wanted by colleagues in the ‘room’ or on the telephone. Farrant said ‘Individually we are underwriters, collectively we are Lloyd’s’.

THE INSURANCE MARKET IN BRITAIN

Like all market, the Insurance Market is a place where buyers and sellers are in contact with one another, either directly, or indirectly, to fix prices. The British Insurance Market is very large, and reaches out not only to every household in Britain but to every country in the world. The explanation lies in the absolute reliability of the market: Lloyd’s, in particular, has an international reputation second to none. Despite the growth in many countries of an insurance market to cater for local populations, re-insurance through London as a ‘ hedge ‘ against possible heavy claims is a normal practice, so that some of the benefit of this business still flows to Britain.

London is the largest insurance market in the world. Besides British and Commonwealth firms there are also Lloyd’s underwriters and foreign companies with London offices.

For the readers information, kindly note that I will also be writing about the insurance market in Singapore and Malaysia in my future posting in this site.

NATIONAL INSURANCE

Insurance against unemployment, sickness and old age is now undertaken in many countries by the government and in Great Britain it is under the control of the Ministry of Health and Social Security. A very limited scheme of social insurance existed in Germany as long ago as 1844, but in Great Britain national insurance dates from 1908-1911, Lloyd George being mainly responsible for its introduction. Previously some of the trade unions had provided insurance against sickness and unemployment for their members. In 1929 the scheme was extended to include pensions for widows.

In 1947 a more comprehensive scheme, based largely on the Beveridge Report, and including a wide range of new benefits, was introduced. Retirement and unemployment pay were increased, and the scheme was made compulsory on all but a very few workers. In addition, however, to contributions being demanded from those entitled to draw benefit, compulsory contributions have to be made by employers, and a third contribution is made by the government, which also finds it necessary to bear most of the cost of the health service. It was the intention both of Lloyd George and Beveridge that national insurance should be operated on strict insurance principles-that is, that the amounts paid should be sufficient to cover all payments of benefit. Owing to the continued decline in the value of money since the scheme was introduced, it has been necessary to increase the benefits, especially retirement pensions. Although the contributions have also been increased, this has not no been sufficient to cover the cost of benefits, and since 1964 the government has had to bear an increasing share of the cost. The last Labour Government proposed to introduce a more ambitious pension scheme with greatly increased contributions from both employers and employees.

TYPES OF ACCIDENT INSURANCE

The four types of accident insurance covered are stated below:

(a) Insurance of liability. The largest volume of accident business covers this kind of liability. Employer’s liability for accidents at work, liability of the organizers of public functions for accidents occurring to the public in the course of the event, and above all the liability of motor-vehicle owners for accidents involving third parties, are the chief policies offered.

In any contract there are two principals to the contract, who may be termed the First Party and the Second Party. In insurance contracts these are the insured and the insurers. Third Parties are any other persons affected by the contract, for example passengers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. The Road Traffic Act 1930 of Britain made it compulsory to have Third Party insurance, i.e. for motorists to protect themselves against liability for death of, or bodily injury to, members of the public. Third parties are therefore nearly always covered by the motorist’s insurance policy. In those cases where an uninsured driver or one whose policy is defective because of some breach of ‘utmost good faith ‘ , causes injury, a Central Fund administered by the Motor Insurers ‘ Bureau of Britain now provides compensation. In Britain a driver who has ‘ Fully Comprehensive’ cover will also receive compensation if he is injured, or if his vehicle is damaged. Because of the high degree of risk when young persons are driving, many insurance companies in Britain will not give ‘ Fully Comprehensive’ cover to persons under the age of 21. ( For Malaysian readers, kindly take note that I will be going into further details regarding motor insurance in my future posting at this site).

(b) Insurance of property. Policies of this sort cover a wide range of risks. Many of these risks are covered by the Householders’ Policies discussed under Fire Insurance. Other are the insurance of shop windows, insurance of herds and flocks against disease, insurance against vandalism, etc. Another type of policy is the ‘all-risks’ policy which offers cover against very wide possibilities. In one recent case a family returned home from holiday to find that a group of vandals had moved in during their absence and had completely wrecked their home. Unfortunately this was not included in their householder’s policy, although a separate policy was available for a small extra premium.(For Malaysian readers, kindly take note that some of the insurance coverages that I have mentioned here are only available in Britain. Even though they are not available in our Malaysian insurance market, I will still be going into further details for knowledge purposes).

(c) Personal accident insurance. These policies cover the insured in respect of death, total or partial disablement, loss of limbs, hospital expenses, etc. They may also cover parties or group of people, e.g. club members on an outing, or sport club players who may be hurt. Short term policies cover railway journeys, and may often be purchased from machines in the concourses of airports or at railway terminals in Britain and other parts of the world. The sums covered by these policies are quite considerable, which emphasizes the rarity of aircraft accidents. A Canadian company once ran the slogan ‘When did you last hear of someone getting kicked to death by a donkey?’ It so happened that deaths in aircraft and deaths by donkey kicks had occurred that year in Canada with equal frequency, 59 deaths by each. Accidents are common, but they are not as common as all that.

(c) Insurance of Interest. Very often interested parties in some event may find themselves open to criticism of their actions which may involve financial compensation. There are many examples, for instance a member of a club committee may authorize some payment which is outside the rules. Professional persons may be held liable for incorrect professional advice given to clients. An executor of a will may pay out the moneys involved and then find a genuine beneficiary who demands compensation. All these contingencies can be insured against. The commonest of the Fidelity Guarantees are the Commercial Fidelity Guarantees taken out by firms upon employees. These Fidelity Bonds restore moneys embezzled by the employee; but it should be noted usually the firm is only reimbursed after the employee has been charged in the courts. There has to be a deterrent or this type of crime would increase, and that would be ‘ against public policy’.

ACCIDENT INSURANCE

The term ‘Accident Insurance ‘ has come to mean any kind of insurance not covered by marine insurance, fire insurance, or life assurance. It became clear as the Industrial Revolution developed that accidents were an inevitable accompaniment to progress. The transport revolution, which accompanied industrial progress, filled first the canals, then the railways, and finally the roads with such a volume of restless traffic as our ancestors would never have deemed possible. Technology invaded every industry; mining, manufacturing, and commerce itself became increasingly mechanized.

The four types of accident insurance covered are; insurance of liability; insurance of property; personal accident; and insurance; and insurance of interest.

TYPES OF LIFE ASSURANCE POLICIES

Industrial Life policies developed in the middle of the nineteenth century as a form of life assurance which would appeal to the industrial classes in Britain. It provided small benefits for very tiny premiums. ‘Penny Death’ policies were quite normal. For a penny a week a sum could be assured which would cover funeral expenses, and even a tombstone. It is perhaps no accident that these policies developed immediately after the Poor Law Amendment Act had created the workhouse system. Fear of that ultimate disgrace, to be buried by the parish in a pauper’s grave, drove even the very poor to pay their insurance money to the insurance agent who called weekly and became in many ways a friend and legal and financial adviser to his poor and often illiterate customers. Today the Industrial Life Offices, through their countrywide network of agents, still have their finger on the nation’s pulse, though now the benefits are less gruesomely necessary and the weekly savings may be pounds rather pence.

Life assurance is primarily designed to cover death or retirement of the insured. It is therefore often a provision for dependents. The possible benefits are:

(a) A lump–sum benefit at death. This may be considerable or may only be enough to cover funeral expenses.

(b) An income benefit commencing at death and lasting the widow for her life, or until re-marriage, or until the children reach a certain age.

(c) The provision of a pension in old age.

(d) The repayment of a mortgage on a house, so that the widow and dependents are sure of ownership of the property on the death of the mortgagor. As property values have risen in recent years, it has become more difficult for a widow to keep up the payments herself on the property. Many building societies and banks now insist that mortgages must be backed up by life assurance. It is distressing for a Society or bank to evict a family because repayments are no longer being made, at a time when they have recently suffered the loss of their bread-winner.

The chief type of policy are:

(a) Whole life policies, payable at death; the premiums being payable either throughout life or to some agreed age, usually 60 years of age.

(b) Endowment policies. Here the sum agreed is payable at the end of a given number of years, or at death if this occurs sooner. It is a popular form of long term-term saving, carrying with it the benefit of insurance cover during the time of the saving. ‘With-profits’ policies return not only the sum assured, but profits actually made on the savings, which have been invested by the company. Usually 90 per cent of the profits made are returned to the policy holder.

(c) Family income policies. In this type of policy it is arranged that if death occurs during the period stated in the contract the benefit will be paid not in one lump sum but by a series of regular repayments, terminating with a final sum at the end of a period. This is very suitable for a man with a young family, since it covers his widow and dependents with a certain minimum income at once in the event of his death. This income will continue until the end of the period agreed, which is usually arranged to cover the time before the children are able to support themselves.

(d) Mortgage-security policies. These have been referred to the above.

(e) Group life policies. These are very convenient to small employers who cannot afford a pensions department to manage investments for pension purposes. The policies can be taken out to cover an agreed sum on each member of the group. An employee who leaves the firm can usually arrange to commute his benefits to a personal insurance cover on terms suitable to his age and pocket.

(f) Unit-linked policies. These policies are issued with a minimum of investigation into the life being insured. They are issued in conjunction with an Investment Trust, about 93 per cent of the monthly sum invested being used to purchase units in the trust. The other 7 per cent is used for insurance cover. Income tax advantages and capital gains on the units invested make this type of policy attractive to persons paying income tax at a standard rate.

In the Malaysian assurance industries there many more types of life assurance polices and these will be further discuss in my future posting at this site.

LIFE ASSURANCE

Life assurance on a long-term basis became possible after Edmund Halley, the famous Astronomer Royal, published his mortality tables in 1693. Based on an investigation into man’s expectation of life, the tables opened the way to predicting probable future mortalities. Previous to this, life assurance had only been conducted on a short-term basis. The earliest policies were designed to provide ransom money for sailors captured off the Barbary coast by the Barbary pirates. In 1705 an Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office was formed which collected contributions from members who wished to provide for their dependents. At the end of each year the funds available were shared among the dependents of members who had died during the year. The sum provided therefore was not steady, but depended upon (a) the sums collected, and (b) the number of members who died.

About one-quarter of the total of all insurance premiums is for life assurance, and some companies specialise in this type of business. This branch of insurance is generally known as assurance, since the risk differs in one important particular from those covered by insurance.

In the case of insurance a premium is paid to provide cover in the case of some eventuality such as fire taking place. If the insured suffers no loss from fire during the period for which the insurance was effected, then no payment to the insured will be due from the insurance company. In the case of life assurance, however, the eventuality-the death of the assured-is certain, the only uncertainty being as to when it will occur. The sum assured also-except for whole life policies-is certain to be paid to someone, to the assured if he lives to the end of the period of assurance or to some relative if he dies before that time. Expectation of life for men and women of different ages can be calculated with great accuracy. The amount of a life-assurance premium will depend on the sex and age of the person whose life is to be assured, the length of the period of assurance and the amount of the assurance. Nowadays, most life assurance is taken out in the form of endowment policies which combine assurance with saving. In this case the assured takes out a policy for a specified number of years. If he survives to the end of the period he receives the sum for which he assured his life together with any bonuses his policy has earned.

FIRE INSURANCE

Fire insurance began a few years after the Great Fire of London (1666) when a speculative builder Nicolas Barbon started the Fire Office in 1680. By 1805 there were 11 fire offices in London and over 30 in the British Isles. They ran their own fire brigades and issued fire marks to be affixed to the walls of building to mark them as being insured by particular company. Brigades sometimes refused to put out a fire on properties which were not insured, but sat around to be ready if the flames spread to properties bearing their fire marks. Later a good deal of co-operation developed and eventually the fire-brigades became part of the public service.

By the start of the twentieth century the need for household policies covering a wider range of risks began to be appreciated. By the 1920s policies covering not only fire but storm and tempest, burst pipes, impacts, explosions, and burglary were introduced. In more recent years aircraft damage, collapse of television aerials, and householders’ liabilities to the public have been added.

One feature of this type of insurance is the influence it has exerted over the years on public policy. The whole question of safety in buildings is continuously under review. Lower premiums are offered to firms and householders who take more sophisticated precautions such as installing sprinkler devices. Even the layout of towns and housing projects to leave adequate fire gaps and escapes on high building are affected by the activities of the insurance lobby, who have the public interest as well as their own interests at heart.

The chief types of policy issued by the fire offices are:

(a) Fire insurance on domestic and business premises, and their contents.

(b) Consequential Loss insurance. (This type of policy ensures that a firm continues to receive reasonable payments in lieu of profits while rebuilding is going on. Otherwise the business may lose all connection with its customers, and are be unable to pay fixed charges such as rates and mortgage repayments which still continue even when the premise have been destroyed.)

(c) Special perils. Many of these are now covered in the normal householder’s policies, but flooding is a special peril which is sometimes not covered by these policies. (For Malaysian readers kindly note that flooding is covered in our Houseowner's and Householder's policies. I will be going into further details regarding these policies in my future posting at this site.)

(d) Household policies. These have already been described above.

MARINE INSURANCE-LOSSES AT SEA

There may be total loss or partial loss:

(i) Total loss. If a ship is lost at sea , or if the cargo is completely destroyed , this is known as an actual total loss. If the cargo is so seriously damaged that it can no longer serve the purpose for which it was intended , or if the ship itself has to be abandoned , this is called a constructive total loss.

(ii) Partial loss. Frequently, however, a ship or its cargo may suffer only partial damage. In this connection the term average is used in marine insurance (and in fire insurance also ) to mean loss. Thus, there is general average and particular average.

General average occurs, for instance, if some of the cargo has to be jettisoned in order to secure the safety of the ship. In this case the loss is not borne only by the owners of cargo but also by the shipowners , since the loss was incurred in order to save the ship. Similarly, if the ship has damage and has to be towed into port the extra expense incurred in doing this will not fall entirely on the shipowners but also on the owners of the cargo, since it was in their interests too for the ship to be saved from total loss.

Particular average occurs when part of the cargo or the ship suffers damage, and where the partial loss is entirely borne by either the owners of the cargo or the shipowners , as the case might be. If, for example , the ship was in collision any damage would be the responsibility of the shipowners; on the other hand, if sea water, shipped while the vessel had struggling through heavy seas, should damage the cargo that would be the responsibility of the owners of the cargo. Thus, a policy taken out “with particular average” provides insurance against all risks at sea, but if it is “free of particular average, “ then cover is provided only against total loss and general average.

In the case of partial loss the extent of the damage has to be assessed by an independent official, know as an average adjuster. In order to secure international uniformity in the adjustment of general average, the York-Antwerp Rules were drawn up.

THE MAIN SECTIONS OF MARINE INSURANCE

The main sections of marine insurance are hull, cargo, freight, and shipowner’s liability.

(a) Hull. The hull of the vessel, which includes the machinery, can be covered against damage or total loss by storm, stranding, fire, collision, or other perils of the sea. Insurance begins from the laying of the keel, when the insurable interest lies with the shipbuilder. After passing into the hands of the buyer, the insurable interest lies with the shipowner from then on. Some policies are time policies, lasting usually for 12 months, or they may be voyage policies lasting from port of departure to port of arrival without a specific time being agreed.

(b) Cargo. The insurance of cargo is absolutely vital in the import and export trade, since the question of payment for the goods hinges around the existence of a reliable insurance policy. This will be explained in detail in my future posting, and the reader is urged to investigate this aspect of cargo insurance thoroughly. The main point is that the existence of an insurance policy in conjunction with a Bill of Lading means that whoever purchases the goods by purchasing the Bill of Lading also subrogates (inherits the rights to ) the insurance claim that may arise if the goods are lost at sea. He therefore buys with confidence, since his purchase is completely secure. Without the insurance policy no one would be prepared to pay for the goods until they had arrived safely.

Cargo policies refer to the movement of goods exported from or imported to a country. At some point the insurable interest will pass from the seller to the buyer, according to the contract of sale. Usually this will be either an F.O.B contract (Free on Board-the seller to deliver the goods on board the carrying vessel)or a C.I.F contract (Cost, Insurance, Freight- the seller to deliver the goods to the port of destination).

Cargo policies cover all risks including war and strike risks, and are based on the value placed on them by the seller-this means the ordinary invoice price. The holder usually has the right to claim, since, except in rare instances, the property in the cargo vests with the holder of the Bill of Lading , to which the policy and invoice are invoice are attached. It follows that for the whole of the time the marine policy is in effect the cargo is the property of the holder of the Bill of Lading.

Floating policies are a variation of cargo policies. They give cover for a specified sum, say $1 million, and eliminate the necessity of insuring each cargo separately. For instance a cross-Channel ferry would be greatly inconvenienced if underwriting insurance had to be negotiated for every trip. The master simply notifies the value of the cargo before sailing on each voyage, and this is set against the floating policy. As soon as the sums already covered approach the total value of the policy the premium will be renewed to extend the cover for a further period.

Open-cover agreements are sometimes made by which an underwriter agrees automatically to cover any consignment notified to him up to a certain limit at a pre-arranged rate for a particular voyage. Policies are issued after shipments are notified.

(c) Freight. The word ‘freight’ is often used as a synonym for cargo, but it has a different meaning in insurance. Here the word means the charge for carrying cargo. A shipowner often gets the freight in advance, but since he is not legally entitled to it until the cargo is safely delivered, he may face an action for recovery of the freight should the cargo be lost overboard. If it is not recoverable because of a special clause in the contract of carriage it will form part of the insured value of the cargo. If it is payable on delivery, it will be a matter for the shipowner to insure against loss of freight. It follows that in nearly every case there is some party with an insurable interest in the freight. Underwriters are prepared to cover this risk of loss of freight, just as in fire insurance they are prepared to cover not only the risk of a fire itself, but the risk of loss of profits while a building is out of use after the fire. Since ‘freight’ is the reward for carrying, it is the income of the carrier.

(d) Shipowners’ liabilities. These are very numerous: not only cargo, passengers, and crew but other vessels, fixed installations such as piers and wharves, and even beaches are liable to be damaged by the actions of ships and ships’ masters. After the Torrey Canyon disaster near Land’s End, a bond of 3 million pounds was required from the owners to cover claims for detergent used, and loss of business suffered by the authorities and businessmen involved in clearing the beaches of oil from the tanker. These eventualities represent a further heavy burden placed upon shipowners. Insurance relives them of these risks, and enables them more confidently to go about their business on the high seas.

MARINE INSURANCE

Ever since 1575, when a Chamber of Assurance was set up in the Royal Exchange of the City of London, there has been a recognized centre for the registration of marine–insurance policies. Registration is evidence of the terms of the contract and is helpful in settling disputes. The 1601 Act already referred to set up a Court of Arbitration to settle disputes over policies.

The insurance of ships and their cargoes is perhaps the oldest form of insurance , for there is evidence that it existed some 2000 years ago. Marine insurance, as this branch of insurance is called, is undertaken by underwriters who are members of Lloyd’s and by marine-insurance companies. Lloyd’s underwriters are the most widely known and the most important insurers in the world. They undertake all kinds of insurance business, but they are best known for marine insurance. Lloyd’s itself does not do insurance business; this is undertaken by its members, either as individuals or working in small syndicates. Lloyd’s as an institution dates from the eighteenth century, when business was transacted in a coffee-house run by Edward Lloyd which was much frequented by merchants engaged in foreign trade. In those days coffee-house were more in the nature of clubs, some being the resort of men of learning and others of businessmen. Today Lloyd’s has its own large premise.

The members of Lloyd’s are underwriters, so called because of the custom of writing their names under any risk a portion of which they were prepared to cover. At the same time they indicated the amount of risk they were prepared to undertake. If a cargo worth $80,000 is to be insured one underwriter may be willing to cover (say) $4000, and if so he will attach his name to group amount. Another underwriter or a syndicate (that is, a small group working together) may choose to cover $6000. The broker who acts between the shipper and the underwriters will go from one to another until the full $80.000 has been covered. In this way the risk is spread over a number of members. A marine insurance company generally covers an entire risk itself.

THE TYPES OF INSURANCE

The four main branches of insurance are:

(a) Marine Insurance


(b) Fire Insurance


(c) Life Insurance


(d) Accident Insurance

There is no real difference between the words 'insurance' and 'assurance', but in Britain it has become customary to use the word assurance when referring to life policies. The events being insured in life assurance will assuredly happen-for we all die, whereas in all other insurances we do not necessarily ever suffer a loss. This seems to be the reason for the word 'assured' in connection with life policies.

THE SCOPE OF INSURANCE

There are many business risks which can be insured against. A shopkeeper will usually also want to insure his shop window, if it is a large one, and companies exist which specialize in this branch of insurance. Merchants and manufacturers responsible for the dispatch, by railway, road, sea or air, of large consignments of goods will insure them against damage or loss while they are in transit. If the railway carries goods at “company’s risk”- the charge for which is higher than if the goods are sent at “owner’s risk”- this means that the railway itself is accepting responsibility for the goods arriving at their destination undamaged. Letters and parcels can be sent by registered post, and in this case it is the Post Office which takes responsibility for their safe arrival. In these last two instances the railway and the Post Office respectively are really acting as insurers.

Insurance against fire dates back more than a thousand years. The first company in England to undertake fire insurance was established in London in 1680. It is interesting to note that the early insurance companies operated their own fire brigades in order to try to reduce the damage for which they would have to pay compensation.

To receive compensation in the case of fire only to the value of the premises and goods which have been destroyed may not fully indemnify a trader for his loss. As a result of the fire he may be put out of business until he has acquired new premises and stock. To cover such contingencies, it is possible to insure against loss of profit as a result of fire. Those who own motor vehicles –ships and aircraft can insure them against damage or loss. In the case of motor vehicles the law compels the owner to insure against what is called ”third-party” claims. A third party is any person, other than the insurance company and the insured, who is involved in an accident. For example, a pedestrian who has been knocked down by a motor car might put in a claim against the driver for compensation for injury. In this case the pedestrian is the third party.

Under the Employers’ Liability and Workmen’s Compensation Acts an employee could bring a claim for compensation against his employer if he had suffered injury at work. If the injury was serious a court of law might award compensation to the extent of thousands of dollars. This, however, is now part of the Socso Scheme, but employers can take out insurance policies to cover themselves against at common law which might be brought by an employee who suffers injury while at work and can prove the accident was due to the employer’s negligence. An individual, too, can insure himself against accidents. Many people used to insure themselves before taking a journey by train, and many still do so when they are travelling by air.

Where employees have to handle large sums of money belonging to their employers there is always the risk of loss to the employer if an employee turns dishonest. This risk, too, can be insured against, and is know as Fidelity Guarantee insurance.

Another branch of insurance which is very useful to business is cover against bad debts. All firms sell goods on credit have to face the possibility that some of their customers will not pay what they owe. This is a relatively new from of insurance, although several attempts have been made in the past to provide this kind of cover for businessmen. It was not until the insured was asked to bear a portion of the risk himself that successful schemes were worked out and operated. It is now an expanding branch of insurance provided by the overseas insurance companies. In order to encourage the export trade, many United States import and export companies has taken insurance against the non-payment of debts by foreign import merchants. British exporters can insure against bad debts of this kind through the Exports Credit Department of the Board of Trade, which has opened offices for this purpose in a number of important cities in Great Britain as well as in London. The business is conducted in very much the same way as that of an insurance company, the exporter paying a premium according to the risk involved.

The terms of each item of insurance are set out in a policy, and it is very important, therefore, that the insured should read this carefully, as sometimes there are exceptional circumstances to which the insurance will not apply and of which the insured should be aware.

Some insurance companies undertake all kinds of insurance, although some specialize in life assurance and others in general insurance.

The volume of insurance business has increased enormously during the past fifty years or so the total assets of insurance companies during that period have increased by ten times and their premium income by twenty times.

There are many other risks besides those mentioned above which can be insured against. A society holding an outdoor function and having to incur heavy expenses in its preparation can insure against rain on the day of the event. The organisers of agricultural shows and athletic meetings often cover themselves against possible loss in this way. In the United States it is compulsory for banks to insure their deposits up to a certain amount. This is a very valuable safeguard for small investors, who suffered heavy losses from the many American bank failures of the 1930s. If you wish, you can even insure your holiday against rain!

PAYING OUT THE JUST CLAIMS

If an insured person suffers a loss as a result of the peril against which he has insured he is entitled to be indemnified for the loss. The correct procedure is to make a claim on an appropriate claim form. This form must as usual be completed with the utmost good faith, and will then be considered by the insurance company. The following points will enter into their considerations:

(a) Was the insured peril the proximate cause of the loss? If so liability exists; if not the claim does not justify payment from the pool of an indemnity sum.

(b) Even if the claim appears at first sight to be justified, are there any breaches of the conditions of the policy? For instance in a motor-accident policy there is usually a clause that the vehicle must be regularly serviced, the tyres must be in good condition, etc. If I wreck my vehicle after skidding owing to the bad state of the tyres my claim will probably fail.

(c) If the claim is justified, what is the correct amount which will indemnify the applicant? Many claimants do not understand indemnity and ask for the replacement price of the goods destroyed. We have already seen that the true indemnity figures takes account of depreciation and may be considerably less than the replacement price.

When a ‘fair’ valuation has been agreed the insurance company pays the agreed sum. If this is large they may find it necessary to borrow from their bankers or even to sell some of their investments in order to realize the money to pay the claim. When the liner Andrea Doria sank, British insurance firms paid 4 million pounds within a few days